An orientation is defined as a general position or tendency. However, most researchers see these concepts as theories of development rather than learning. A theory moves beyond one isolated incident and away from trying to find a single cause of a problem. Theories give a framework that allows for some insight into the general rules of behavior and the complex interactions that cause people to act as they do. Nonetheless, whether addressed as an orientation or a theory, scholars have spent immeasurable hours discovering how and why people learn.
Adult and Child Learning is Different
Andragogy is more than learning or teaching. It is a psychosocial drama involving developed personalities, context of the educational transaction and political climate precipitating the nature and form of learning. Stephen D. Brookfield, in his text Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning [San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass, 1986] believes that adult learning opportunities are often based on the principles of pedagogy, that is – youth education.
Unlike children, adults come to the table with different life experiences, expectations, and goals. By not acknowledging this, adult learners may very well encounter conflicting purposes, contrasting personality styles, or challenges to engage in an anxiety-producing reevaluation of self.
Scholars have developed a number of orientations/theories explaining how adults learn. Many things affect how and why an adult seeks further education including, life changes; cultural or industrial changes; or self-improvement. Based on all the variables, Brookfield finds that there are two overall characteristics of adult learning. First is self-directedness and the second is the use of personal experience.
Behaviorist Orientation
This presentation views learning as a change in behavior and to be qualified as learning, must be brought about by the interaction of a person with her or his environment. The purpose of education is to produce behavioral change in a desired direction. The learning environment must be structured carefully to guarantee that the learning experience is a smooth and gradual one and that the basic assumptions have been made before the more complicated associations can be expected.
Assumptions on This Perspective
Aragon (2000), as reported in Merriam and Caffarella's Learning in Adulthood [San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999] p,osits three basic assumptions about this perspective. First, observable behavior rather than internal thought processes is the focus of study. He believes that environment shapes an individual's behaviors and that the principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process.
Operant Conditioning
BF Skinner is generally thought of as the father of this orientation. His major contribution was "operant conditioning". Operant conditioning is a learning process in which reward or punishment makes a person more or less likely to repeat a behavior. He developed four guidelines for instructors to create a successful learning environment. First, be clear about what is being taught. Second, the basics must be taught first. Third, don't expect students to advance at the same rate, and fourth, use programmed subject matter, that is, a set of instructional materials students can use to teach themselves.
Dominant Principles
Three principles dominate behavorist learning. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur, especially if the reinforcement is intermittent. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced. Finally, reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli producing secondary conditioning.
